This article was first published in the Journal of Ultimate Reality and Meaning, Vol. 24, No. 1, March 2001.

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The Ultimate Reality and Meaning of Samkhya

Shiv D. Talwar, Spiritual Heritage Education Network, 408 Tamarack Drive, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 4G6, Canada

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1  Global Truth

It is in the nature of thinking minds to attempt to explain the totality of human experience.  In the absence of a plausible explanation, humanity attempts to improve its understanding until a reasonably satisfactory explanation is found. Sages around the world have always searched for such explanations. In India, a school of thought known as the Samkhya philosophy is an outstanding example of this universal search for global truth.

 

1.1.1        Vedic Philosophy in India

Indian schools of thought are often divided into two categories.  There are those that recognize the validity of the Vedas, the ancient Aryan scriptures, and there are those that do not belong to the Vedic fold.  The former schools of thought choose to regard the testimony of collective spiritual experience embodied in the Vedas as superior to reason, based as they are on actual spiritual experience, a source of light admitted to be greater in its domain than mere intellectual reason.

            Six Vedic systems of thought are recognized.  The Samkhya philosophy of the sage Kapila is one of the six. The others are: Nyaya of Gautama, Vaisesika of Kanada, Yoga of Patanjali, Purva Mimamsa of Jaimini and Uttara Mimamsa of Badrayana.  Samkhya and Yoga are generally twinned together with Samkhya developing the theoretical understanding of the universal phenomenon, and Yoga propounding the practical side of achieving the supreme goal of life about which both of them complement each other.

 

1.1.2        The Questions

Who is an individual human being? What is the nature of an individual human being? Where do human beings come from and what is their ultimate destination? What is the relationship of an individual with other individuals? What is the purpose of an individual's life? Why do we want to do the good and avoid evil? What is good?  What is evil?  Samkhya philosophy answers such basic questions in a coherent manner and thus provides humanity with a perspective that is necessary for living integrated and full lives. 

            It is the intent of this article to present a contemporary understanding of this ancient school of thought, which has stood the test of time. Even in this age of science and technology, the Indian mind generally considers Samkhya as a very satisfactory explanation of the totality of human experience.

 

1.2 Historical Provenance of the Samkhya School

The earliest known references to the Samkhya school of thought appear in the Upanishads, Indian scriptural literature, which represent the earliest efforts of humankind to give a philosophical explanation of the universe and beyond. According to western historians, the early Upanishads were historically prior to Buddhism (Hiriyanna 1993, p.52). Indian historians agree and claim that the date of their composition is much before the birth of Buddha.

            Samkhya thinking existed much before Kapila systematically enunciated it. Some historians place Kapila in the century preceding Buddha (Radhakrishnan 1977, p. 254). Samkhya Pravachan Sutram and Tattva Samasa, both attributed to sage Kapila, are two methodical enunciations of this school of thought.  Both of these compositions take the form of short aphoristic statements called sutras (meaning threads).  Sutras were designed to say a lot in a few words so that, in the absence of printing facilities, they could be easily committed to memory and transmitted from one generation to the next.  A properly qualified commentator would then provide full explanation of the aphorisms (Basham 1989, pp. 98-9).  Fortunately, a compilation of these sutras, in addition to those of Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrisna, along with some authoritative commentaries translated into English are easily available (Sinha 1979). Out of the two compositions attributed to sage Kapila, Tattva Samasa, according to some authorities, is more likely to be his original work.  Bhagavad-Gita (Shrimad Bhagvadgita) is also believed to offer an early enunciation of this school of thought.

 

1.3 Meaning of the word Samkhya

The word Samkhya literally means number.  It is a compound word comprised of the prefix sam (short form of samyak, balanced) and khya (knowledge, declaration); it also means balanced knowledge or knowledge based on philosophical reflection (Radhakrishnan 1977, p. 249; Sinha 1979, Samkhya Pravachan Sutram p. 11). In either sense, the name appropriately stands for a school of thought that gives an analytical enumeration of the principles governing the cosmos to explain the totality of human experience.

 

1.4 Causality in Samkhya

Samkhya sees the whole universe as an effect of an underlying ultimate cause.  The reality of the universe is undeniable.  Something must come out of something.  Nothing can come out of nothing.  The universe comes out of its ultimate cause.  According to Samkhya, since the reality of the universe is undeniable, the reality of its cause is undeniable as well.

            This viewpoint is congruent with Vedic thinking. A verse in Rigveda known as the ‘Song of Creation’ is, perhaps, the earliest recognition of the principle of causality tracing the whole universe to a single ultimate reality.  What follows is an English translation of this hymn  (Hiriyanna 1993 , p. 42):

'Then there was neither Aught nor Naught; no air nor sky beyond.

What covered all?  Where rested all?  In watery gulf profound?

Nor death was then, nor deathlessness, nor change of night and day.

That One breathed calmly, self-sustained; naught else beyond it lay.

Gloom hid in gloom existed first--one sea, eluding view.

That One, a void in chaos wrapt, by inward fervor grew.

Within it first arose desire, the primal germ of mind,

Which nothing with existence links, as sages searching find.

The kindling ray that shot across the dark and drear abyss--

Was it beneath? or high aloft?  What bard can answer this?

There fecundating powers were found, and mighty forces strove--

A self-supporting mass beneath, and energy above.

Who knows, who ever told, from whence this vast creation rose?

No gods had then been born--who then can e'er the truth disclose?

Whence sprang this world, and whether framed by hand divine or no--

Its Lord in heaven alone can tell, if even he can show.'

This hymn marks the beginning of humanity’s search in its discovery of a unity behind the diversity of the universe.  All creation, including opposites of all kinds such as life and death, night and day, being and nonbeing, matter and energy, all are seen as developing out of That One of this hymn.

 

1.5 That One

Samkhya considers the universe as a manifestation and an unfolding of That One.  It is this unfolding of That One, which is the focus of the Samkhya school of thought rather than Its Lord in heaven.  That One is the Ultimate Reality of the universe and is referred to as Brahman. The word Brahman literally means that which ‘bursts forth in the form of the universe’. Brahman is defined as that which gives rise to the universe, reabsorbs it, and supports it (Hiriyanna, 1993, p. 54).

2. INFINITE CAUSES AND INFINITE EFFECTS

Considering the completeness, perfection and infinity of the universe and beyond, an upanishadic sage exclaimed the following in one verse (Ranganathananda 1980, p. 63): ‘That is perfect.  This is perfect.  From perfection, only perfection can result.  A part of something perfect is also perfect and so is what remains’.

            The word ‘That’ here means the same as That One, the Transcendent, or the Universal Principle. These terms denote the Ultimate Reality of the entire universe. Everything, all entities, all beings, all emotions and all ideas in the entire universe can be explained and understood, without recourse to any other entity, in terms of the Universal Principle. At the same time, there is nothing, no entity, no being, no emotion and no idea in the entire universe in terms of which the Universal Principle can be explained and understood. Terms such as the Transcendent, the Universal Principle, and the Universal Spirit are equivalent. The universe is considered to be a manifestation of the Transcendent, also variously referred to as God without, or simply God or Brahman.

            The word ‘This’ is used to denote the universe in all its diversity.  It also means the Immanent. The Immanent, the immanent self, and the individual spirit are terms used interchangeably to denote the ultimate reality as resident in an individual.  Everything, all emotions, and all ideas of an individual can be explained and understood, without recourse to any other entity, in terms of the Immanent.  At the same time, there is nothing, no emotion, and no idea of the individual in terms of which the Immanent can be explained and understood.  The individual is considered to be a manifestation of the Immanent, also variously referred to as God within, atman or the real self.

            The Upanishad sage experienced the unity of the Immanent and the Transcendent and expressed it forcefully in the verse translated above.  He saw the Immanent as having an identical relation with the Transcendent, perfect just as the Transcendent, complete just as the Transcendent, and infinite just as the Transcendent.  It is in the very nature of infinity that any part of the infinite is infinite, and what remains is also infinite.  The same is true in the case of perfection.  Any part of a perfect entity is perfect, and what remains is also perfect. And this is also the case with completeness or wholeness as well.  The Transcendent is infinite, perfect, complete, and whole.  The Immanent is the same in all aspects as the Transcendent; it is infinite, perfect, complete, and whole.  The Immanent being the same as the Transcendent does not detract from the importance of the Transcendent in any way whatsoever.  On the contrary, it emphasizes the infinity of the Transcendent that remains infinite even after manifesting Itself as an infinite number of diverse beings in the universe, each with an infinite Immanent at its core and as its cause.

            The universe, alluded to as ‘This’ in the verse translated above, through which the Transcendent manifests Itself, is infinite, perfect, complete and whole also, just as the Transcendent is infinite, perfect, complete and whole.  After all, infinity cannot express itself in its entirety through what is finite; perfection cannot express itself through what is imperfect, and completeness or wholeness cannot express itself through what is incomplete or less than whole.  The universe is infinite, infinite in diversity and infinite in beauty.  It is an infinite system that is perfect, whole and complete.

            If the cause is the same, then why is there so much diversity?  Maybe, the appropriate question to ask is – ‘Can there be manifestation without diversity’?  Can one imagine a universe without diversity?  Will the universe with no diversity be a complete and whole system? Will it be a perfect system? There is no purpose to and no meaning in manifestation without diversity; there is no manifestation without diversity. Diversity is essential for the universe and there can be no universe without it.  Diversity is what provides meaning to manifestation.

3. MANIFESTATION AND NOT CREATION

Why do we use the word manifestation and not creation? We do so advisedly, because the word creation implies the existence of two ultimate realities - the creator and some other entity comprising the raw material with which the creator creates. If that is the case, the Transcendent cannot be the only ultimate reality of the universe, since the ultimate reality must also be absolute; and absolute, by definition, must be one.  Thus, the Transcendent is not said to create but manifests Itself in the form of diverse entities that constitute the universe. It would not be appropriate to describe this process as creation when the creator and the material with which to create are one and the same.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. PROCESS OF MANIFESTATION

Kapila’s Samkhya explains the entire reality of the universe and beyond on the basis of twenty-five tattvas (Sinha 1979, Samkhya Pravachan Sutram, p. 94). The term tattva is loosely translated as element.  Literally, it means that-ness, the essential quality of an object that distinguishes it from objects of another class.  It also means a principle or a function embodied in a class of objects represented by the object. The universe is a manifestation of That One through these twenty-five principles classified as follows:

 

4.1 Spirit and Energy

The most basic and fundamental manifestation of the one and only Universal Principle is its presentation as two principles – purusha and prakriti, roughly translated as pure consciousness and primordial nature, or spirit and energy (see Figure 1). The word purusha means an attractive force that holds infinitesimally minute particles together.  It also means awareness, or pure consciousness. It does not evolve from anything and nothing evolves from it. We shall use the term Consciousness Principle to express the entire meaning of the term purusha.  The term prakriti denotes energy.  It also signifies primordial nature. It does not evolve from anything, but everything evolves from it.  Similarly, we shall use the term Natural Principle to express the entire meaning of the term prakriti. Both purusha and prakriti are infinite, perfect, complete and whole.  Purusha and prakriti are two fundamental principles that constitute two of the twenty-five tattvas of Samkhya. They are very different from each other. The former is eternally changeless and source of all intelligence whereas, the latter is in perpetual motion, continuously changing and evolving, insentient and devoid of intelligence.  Other twenty-three tattvas evolve from the latter.

 

4.2 Eight-fold Nature

Manifestation as diverse entities is the very nature of the Natural Principle. The attractive force of the Consciousness Principle assists in individuation of the Natural Principle by holding the primordial nature together as individual entities. 

            The eight-fold nature encompasses a class of eight tattvas. The eight tattvas (elements) of this class are - bhumi (earth), jala (water), agni (fire), vayu (wind), akasha (sound, or vibration energy in general), mana (mind stuff), ahamkara (material stuff of personality), and budhhi (stuff of intellect). These eight tattvas are listed in order of increasing subtlety, the first being the least subtle and the last the most subtle.  Budhhi is the subtlest product of evolution of prakriti from which all other elements evolve. The subtle realities have the capacity to permeate and impregnate the less subtle ones and the gross ones as well, but not vice versa.

            The term bhuta is sometimes used to indicate a tattva; usually a gross tattva.  The first five of the eight tattvas form a group called panch-bhutas (group of five elements). The world of these five elements is supposed to encompass the entire world of sense perception and is referred to as the objective or the phenomenal world.  Each one of the five tattvas is supposed to represent a class of objects related to a respective perceptive sense and a sense organ as follows (Taimni 1961 , p. 269):

1.      Bhumi (earth) is related through the sense of smell with the nose;

2.      Jala (water) is related through the sense of taste with the tongue;

3.      Agni (fire) is related through the sense of sight with the eyes;

4.      Vayu (wind) is related through the sense of touch with the skin; and

5.      Akasha (vibration energy) is related through the sense of hearing with the ears.

            The modern scientific method, understood in the strict sense, applies primarily to the study of the world of the panch-bhutas. In the Samkhya school of thought, the scope of modern science is rather limited, since it includes only five of the twenty-five tattvas necessary to explain the totality of universal experience.

            The last three of the eight tattvas of this class are too subtle to be lumped together with the first five, or to be empirically understood using the scientific method.  The world of these three tattvas is called the subjective world and is beyond perception by sense organs. Further diversity is only due to the interplay of these eight natural elements and the Consciousness Principle.

 

4.3 Cognitive Senses

Samkhya accepts five senses of perception as a class of the basic principles underlying the reality of the universe.  These are the senses of hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell. These senses are to be distinguished from the respective organs such as ears, skin, eyes, tongue, and nose. Whereas the organs are merely the physical instruments, Samkhya regards senses as the underlying subtle ‘software’, as it were.

 

4.4 Active Senses

Samkhya also accepts five active senses as another class of the basic principles.  These are the subtle ‘software’ underlying the workings of speech, hands, feet, organs of excretion and the genitals.

 

4.5 Tanmatras

In addition to the above, Samkhya accepts a class of principles called the tanmatras.  They are the objects of senses, namely sound, touch, form, taste, and smell.  The word tanmatra means essence. Samkhya sees these five as the essential core of universal yearning.

            For the sake of simplicity and brevity, cognitive senses, active senses and the tanmatras are lumped together with mana (mind), since it is thought that mana as the controller of these tattvas can represent them all.  This approach is used in making the illustrative diagrams in this article.

5. ORDER OF EVOLUTION FROM PRAKRITI

Prakriti is the material cause of all things.  It is infinite, because what is limited cannot be the material cause of all things. It is the un-manifested substratum of all manifestation.  Everything evolves from it, but it does not evolve from anything. But it must also be remembered that it is insentient and lacking intelligence.

            The first evolution of prakriti is buddhi.  It is the seat of the thinking principle.  It ascertains or determines.  It embodies the principles of common sense, differentiation, and discrimination by which things are classified, known, and understood.  It also embodies the principle of enlightened discrimination leading to truth and perfect knowledge.

            From buddhi evolves ahamkara.  This is the principle of self or personality, the ‘I’ of an entity or a being, the source of knowledge of self-existence and self-assertion.  It is the principle of self-centeredness – a reference to oneself as unique, distinct, standing apart from others and for whom everything exists.  It is the seat of ownership, and therefore has to do with the concepts of ‘mine’ and ‘yours’. It is the source of all desire to experience the five objects of the senses.  To achieve this end, it has the power to control the workings of buddhi from which it evolves.  All the other elements evolve from it.

            From ahamkara, further evolution proceeds in two directions. Along one direction, evolution from ahamkara results in mana (mind) and the two sets of active and cognitive senses. Gratification of the desire produced by ahamkara is achieved through mind using the five active senses as instruments to establish contact with the objective world of the five gross elements, and receiving feedback through the five cognitive senses.  Along the other direction, evolution from ahamkara results in the five tanmatras, each one of which further evolve into the corresponding gross element.  Thus, twenty-one tattvas consisting of mind, two sets of senses, five objects of senses, and the five gross elements are born out of ahamkara to serve its purpose of experiencing the diversity of the universe.

            Sixteen elements including five gross elements, mind, and two sets of senses are evolutionary in one direction only. They evolve from other elements, but nothing evolves further from them. Seven elements including buddhi, ahamkara and five tanmatras do not merely evolve from other elements but also cause further evolution. They belong to a class by themselves. These twenty-three elements comprise the manifested world. They all evolve from their un-manifest root called prakriti, which does not evolve from anything. 

            All these twenty-four fall into a class called jada, the unintelligent.  According to the Samkhya school of thought, the source of intelligence in the manifested world is not a product of prakriti at all, but it is an element quite apart and very different from it. The appearance of intelligence in the manifested world is through the association of the unintelligent prakriti with the intelligent and all pervasive purusha. Without association with purusha, prakriti cannot evolve.  Purusha acts as a catalyst in the evolutionary process, without being directly involved in any way with it and without undergoing any change in itself.  In other words, prakriti cannot evolve without purusha overseeing the evolution.

6. METHOD OF SAMKHYA

6.1 Empiricism

The Samkhya epistemological enquiry is based on direct perception by senses called pratyaksha, having to do with whatever is directly perceptible, and on inference called anumana, dealing with whatever is imperceptible or not perceptible with enough clarity (Sinha 1979, Samkhya Pravachan Sutram, p. 99). Samkhya considers the reality of whatever is clearly perceptible as undeniable. However, inferred knowledge must be subject to a test of compliance with the testimony of collective spiritual experience embodied in the Vedas called agama, which is regarded as superior to inferential logic. There must exist a smooth and unbroken continuum without contradictions between the obvious knowledge of the senses, on the one hand, and the deepest of collective spiritual intuitions, on the other.

            Samkhya arrives at its conclusions using the discipline of logic in a strict way.  It starts from the reality of the senses and that of sense perception.  It infers the existence of five tanmatras from the perception of the five gross elements (Sinha 1979, Samkhya Pravachan Sutram, p. 99). The five gross elements are the means of satisfying the senses. The five tanmatras are the objects of sense desire. The reality of the means points towards the reality of the objects. The plurality of senses and their coordinated action point to the reality of mana, the coordinator of senses and receiver of their feedback.

            In order to illustrate the logic of Samkhya, let us consider how it establishes the reality of ahamkara. First, this is inferred by means of the senses and the mind along with the objects of sense desires. In other words, the existence of sense experience points to the seat of experience. Experiential understanding results thanks to a mechanism for the storage of experience. That is ahamkara. If the experience is real, then ahamkara must also be real.  The storehouse of experience serves some purpose, and that leads us to infer the reality of buddhi, the user of experience in its ascription.  Since nothing can come out of nothing, the existence of buddhi points towards the existence of prakriti, the cause of everything seen and felt.  Prakriti is at the root of everything and there is no root of the root (Sinha, 1979, Samkhya Pravachana Sutram, p. 111). This conclusion is based on simple observation. Thus every entity in the universe except consciousness is ultimately a product of prakriti.

 

6.2 Consciousness, an Element apart from Nature

Some people contend that consciousness is also a product of nature. Biological processes going on in nature produce consciousness in some mysterious way. But Samkhya would disagree with this view.  It contends that consciousness is an element apart and very different from nature. Being apart from nature, it does not lend itself to knowledge by either direct sensory perception or by inference since the validity of both sensory perception and inference are limited to the field of prakriti alone. The only definite proof of the existence of purusha therefore is agama, the testimony of collective spiritual experience. However, Samkhya offers the following argument in defense of its point of view that purusha exists as an element apart from prakriti (Sinha 1979, Samkhya Karika, p. 17):

1.      Complex creations and aggregations that evolve in unintelligent prakriti indicate the existence of a principle of intelligence other than and different from prakriti.

2.      Unintelligent objects always follow certain definite rules of behavior, but intelligence is accompanied by a degree of freedom. For example, human bodies lack intelligence, but human beings are intelligent bodies. There has to be in human beings another element that adds to human bodies a measure of intelligence.  That other element is purusha.

3.      Unintelligent objects do not have a capability of activity without an intelligent driver. Prakriti is always engaged in evolutionary activity. How can it be meaningfully engaged without the help of a principle of intelligence?

4.      Unintelligent objects cannot make use of and experience other unintelligent objects.  We observe meaningful use of objects in nature by other objects. We observe learning from experience in nature. That is impossible without a principle of intelligence.

5.      Human beings observe ideas and ideals in nature. They are moved by ideals for ultimate good at the expense of immediate gain. They undergo extreme discomfort, pain and even death for their ideals. That is not possible without an immanent purusha.

Thus, Kapila’s Samkhya explains the realm of the manifested universe as a result of the association of prakriti and purusha. Contemporary understanding of Samkhya extends to the un-manifested realm as well.  In the un-manifested realm, the two fundamental principles of Kapila’s Samkhya associate with each other in the being of Brahman, That One, that infinity which is the cause and source of this infinity.

 

6.3 Brahman and the Universe

Bhagvadgita (Shrimad Bhagvadgita, Chapter 7, verses 4-6) refers to prakriti as the para (near, or easily discernible) nature and purusha as the apara (far, or not easily discernible) nature of Brahman that is the root cause of all manifestation and dissolution. Brahman, thus, is the param-tattva, the ultimate reality (param means ultimate or supreme) of contemporary Samkhya. It is Brahman that is the ultimate reality of the universe and beyond, and it is Brahman that is the ultimate reality of all beings.  Brahman is both the transcendent and the immanent. It embodies both being and becoming.  It pours forth the universe out of its own substance and then re-enters it as its indwelling spirit.  It is both the material and the efficient cause of the universe.

            How does Samkhya indicate the universe relates with God?  Whereas the association of purusha and prakriti in the realm of the manifest is the mode of existence of the universe, the association of purusha and prakriti in the realm of the un-manifest, Brahman, is the eternal mode of being of God, Its Lord in heaven. The only difference is the state of evolution of prakriti.  In the former case, prakriti is in its active state, continuously evolving, mortal and changing while in the latter case prakriti is in its quiescent and immortal state.

 

6.4 A Total Explanation of Human Experience

Thus, a contemporary retrieval of Samkhya  tries to explain the totality of the human experience both in the realms of the manifest and the un-manifest, in terms of prakriti and purusha, energy and spirit – two fundamental principles underlying this universe and beyond, or one param-tattva, the ultimate reality of Brahman, the mode of being of the Transcendent unifying the duality of prakriti and purusha as merely two of Its innate natures.

7. THE THREE BODIES

Each animate being in the universe is endowed with three bodies:

1.      The physical body is comprised of the group of five gross elements.

2.      The subtle body is comprised of the group of three subtle elements in addition to the two sets of senses, and objects of senses.  Although subtle body is comprised of eighteen tattvas, ten senses and five objects of senses being under the control of the mana (mind) are, for the sake of simplicity, lumped with it.  Mana is supposed to represent and contain them all.

3.      The causal body is comprised of a partial of the Consciousness Principle (remember a part of infinity is also infinite). The causal body impregnates and activates the subtle body, which, in turn, permeates and activates the gross physical body.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Purusha (the Consciousness Principle), being the subtlest manifestation of the Universal Principle, impregnates and activates budhhi, ahamkara, and mana of the subtle body.  In addition, it activates the ‘software’ for the involuntary automatic processes of the physical body. Physiological processes, such as breathing, reflexive and instinctive responses, are some examples of such involuntary automatic processes.

            Activated budhhi is vested with the ability of considered thought in the light of Purusha.  If the nature of the physical body permits, thought waves of the activated budhhi are communicated to ahamkara.  Instinctive needs of the physical body are being communicated to ahamkara at all times.  The nature of physical bodies, with the one and only one exception of the human body, does not permit communication of thought waves of the budhhi to ahamkara, leaving it to be guided primarily by physical instincts.  Ahamkara, activated by the thought waves of the budhhi, or by the instinctive needs of the physical body, in turn, permeates and activates mana.  Mana, in its activated state, communicates with the ‘software’ of the active and cognitive senses setting physical activity in motion.

            The subtle body thus activated permeates and activates every cell of the physical body.  It must be noted that limitations of the physical body may permit only partial functioning and expression of the subtle body.

            The causal body, without which there is no life, shines completely through the subtle and the gross bodies and is not affected by them at all, but the nature of the gross body determines the extent to which the subtle body may express itself in a gross body!  All beings, except the human beings, are endowed with gross bodies that do not permit the subtle body to express itself completely.  Beings other than human have physical bodies that cannot comprehend the dictates of budhhi in favor of the natural instincts of the physical body, which in turn, depend upon the attributes of the physical body itself.

8. PROCESS OF DISSOLUTION

The manifestation of the three bodies is one thing, their dissolution another. The universe dissolves itself into the Universal Principle at the time of its demise, in a process that is the reverse of the manifestation process (see Figure 2). The physical body dissolves itself into five of its component elements and the subtle body into three of its component elements. The eight natural elements were born of prakriti (energy), and they dissolve back into it.  Prakriti and Purusha then join and become That One, the Universal Principle, or the Ultimate Reality.

9. ATTRIBUTES

Diversity appears through differences in gunas - properties or attributes inherent in an entity.  Gunas are so fundamental to the concept of prakriti that Samkhya defines prakriti as the state of ‘quiescence’ of three gunas described below (Sinha 1979, Samkhya Pravachana Sutram, p. 94). Because of this state of quiescence of attributes, in its primordial state prakriti may appear to be devoid of attributes.  Evolution is the result of disturbance in this state of quiescence or equilibrium of the gunas in the Natural principle.

 

9.1 Disturbance of Equilibrium

This equilibrium of attributes is disturbed when the Natural Principle expresses itself as an individual entity.  As a result of this disturbance, one attribute may assume dominance over the others. This process is called attribution.  Even if one attribute assumes prominence, all three are always present in all natural entities.  In addition,  one attribute may dominate at a particular stage in time, while another may dominate at another stage when the prevailing conditions change.

 

9.2 Individuation

Individuation and attribution happen simultaneously.  Individuation also results in finiteness, a perception of limitations and a propensity for change.  Finiteness and limitations result from the loss of infinity, and a propensity for change resulting from the loss of eternity as the infinite and eternal Universal Principle manifests itself as individual beings.

            Different finite individual entities, bestowed with different inherent attributes, look, feel, act, behave, smell, and taste differently. In addition, time changes attributes of individual entities, thus adding to their diversity even further.  The Natural Principle is the source of all attributes, which are all present in it as its essential constituents, in such a perfect balance as to make it appear without attributes.  It uses attributes to differentiate one manifested entity from another.  If it does not do so, there is no point in manifestation.  The universe would be devoid of purpose and meaning in the absence of diversity.

 

9.3 Transcendence of Individual Attributes

The Transcendent is in itself without any attributes.  And the Consciousness Principle in itself is without any attributes. They transcend all attributes. They are beyond change, as they are eternal. They are without limitations of any kind whatsoever. Individuation, attribution, limitation, change and finiteness are in the realm of the Natural Principle alone when it manifests itself as individual entities. Attributes apply to both the objective and subjective realms, since the eight tattvas of the Natural Principle underlie both of these worlds.

            Although the Consciousness Principle is beyond attributes, its inherent characteristics are sat (eternity, truth), chit (consciousness), and anand (bliss). These three are known as its basic nature and not its attributes, since attributes change in time while nature stays the same. This differentiation is necessary as the Consciousness Principle is changeless whereas the Natural Principle is subject to change as a result of its evolutionary process.

 

9.4 Forces of Change

In addition to the obvious physical attributes related to how an entity looks, feels, smells, or tastes, there are three subtle attributes that are present in different proportions in different entities. The concept of these subtle attributes is easily understood if we recall that the various entities in the objective world are mere manifestations of consciousness and energy.  The subtle attributes reflect the state of energy (gati - movement or change) inherent in the being. They represent how different things react to change depending upon the type of movement in the minutest of particles that comprise the entity. Forces of change in the universe result from the interaction of individual beings in the universe.  Every finite existent changes as a result of these forces.  But the way the forces of change affect different entities is different.  Observing the phenomenon of change in the universe, Samkhya describes these subtle attributes in various ways.

 

9.4.1 Tamas or Tamo guna

Inertia and ignorance are the keywords used to describe this attribute, which is possessed by realities that are highly resistant to change.  The rate of change in beings dominated by this attribute is generally so slow that they seem not to change at all. On the other hand, if extreme conditions prevail, they may change their state beyond recognition and continue to remain in that state as long as those conditions continue to prevail.  Tamasic entities are more like inanimate things than sentient beings, since they appear lifeless because of their static nature.  This attribute characterizes darkness, ignorance, sloth, and lack of knowledge and awareness.

            At the subjective level (Shrimad Bhagvadgita, Chapter 14), ignorance, delusion and contrary knowledge feed tamas. Tamas, in turn, results in lack of motivation, lack of ambition, apathy, neglect, sloth, sleepiness, and similar tendencies that lead to further ignorance, delusion and understanding inconsistent with reality. A tamasic human being is thus caught in a vicious circle of ignorance, delusion and sloth. It is easy for the body to get used to sloth and sleepiness.  They hinder human development and keep the human being focused primarily on the physical body.  Such a person has a very narrow worldview, and a value system that is totally materialistic and body centered.

 

9.4.2 Rajas or Rajo guna

Desire and activity are the keywords used to describe this attribute. This trait describes instability. Change is rapid, and the effect of change is unpredictable.  The sentient beings with Rajas as their dominant attribute can be said to be in a state of unstable equilibrium.  Their behavior is rather unpredictable. This attribute is accompanied by lack of peace, disorder, confusion, agitation and volatility.

            At the subjective level, attachment and desire are the cause of rajas. Rajas results in a person being dominated by greed, ambition, and motivation that causes activity and sensual enjoyment, leading to further attachment and desire.  A  human being dominated by rajas is caught in a vicious circle of attachment and desire and their various outcomes.  Attachment to the results of actions keeps human beings incessantly involved in purposeless activity.  Thinking is seldom undertaken. Their understanding remains confused.  Value system and worldview of such persons are unclear and doubts abound.

 

9.4.3 Sat or Sato guna

Light and cognition are the keywords used to describe this attribute.  This feature describes the state of stable equilibrium resulting from the light of knowledge and understanding.  Change happens in an orderly manner.  Every effect is proportional to and consistent with its cause and, therefore, predictable. Peace, quiet and order prevail.  There is no resistance to change, and change causes no confusion. Agitation and volatility are completely absent where this attribute predominates. This attribute is characteristic of light, knowledge and consciousness. There is an absence of darkness, ignorance, sloth, and confusion in sentient beings where sato guna is the dominant attribute.

           

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

At the subjective level, cognition, knowledge and understanding feed Sat. Resulting from a freedom from ill will and evil feelings, Sat leads to peace, painlessness, and feelings of happiness, which, in turn, engender further knowledge and understanding.  This could be described as a virtuous circle of feelings of peace and happiness, knowledge and understanding.  When sat dominates a subjective being, worldview and values become clear and important, though conviction may not be firm enough to lead to consistent actions.  There may be a feeling of smugness and superiority due to the knowledge and understanding that the person has gained.  Samkhya says this person, too, remains limited by attachment to personal feelings of peace, happiness and tranquility.

            In summary, Gunas or attributes are so intimately connected to the Natural Principle that the Samkhya school of thought refers to them as its constituents.

10. CAUSE AND EFFECT

Another reason for diversity is the process of cause and effect.  Forces of change resulting from the interaction of different existents are causes that inevitably give rise to effects.  Thus, the objective universe is constantly subjected to causes and effects, which in turn become causes for further effects. There is a continuous chain of causes and effects infinitely complicated by the three gunas in myriad combinations determining the manner in which entities react to causes.  Although the relationship between causes and effects may generally be too complex for the human intellect to understand, their systematic study in certain objective fields such as science and medicine by trained minds is known to prove beneficial to human beings.

11. HUMAN BEINGS

Of all the diverse animate beings in the universe, human beings form a class in themselves.  They represent an optimal manifestation of the Universal Principle, being endowed with a physical body that provides the ‘hardware’ necessary for exploiting the full potential of the subtle body. The human physical body provides the medium necessary for communicating the considered thought from the budhhi to the ahamkara along with the uncontrolled instinctive demands of the physical body.  Purusha does not exercise control over instinctive demands against overindulgence, this function being allocated to the ahamkara driven by the thought process of the budhhi (see Figure 3).

 

11.1 The Development of Rationality

Adult human beings with healthy physical bodies have the necessary physical medium either to permit the thought waves of the budhhi to be communicated to the ahamkara, or to let them be fully guided by natural instincts.  The extent to which ahamkara is affected by considered thought depends upon its current state and the state of the physical body.  When a human being is born, ahamkara is completely controlled by natural instincts.  In time, the state of the physical body develops and a human being starts to collect experience.  Memories of the prior experiences determine the state of ahamkara, which determines the extent to which considered thought of the budhhi is permitted to be passed on to mana to activate the body and the senses. This activity leads to further experience, which determines the next state of ahamkara. Proper human development depends upon the healthy development of the physical body and the development of ahamkara conducive to the considered thought of the budhhi to primarily be passed on to the mana.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

11.2 Mana, the Controller of Cognition

Mana is the controller of active and cognitive senses through which physical action is consummated. Input to the mana controls how it directs the physical body to behave.  Thus, this input is the key to human experience and behavior.  Whether this input results primarily from the considered conclusions of the thought process of the budhhi or from the instincts of the physical body determines the precise nature of human actions and behavior.

            Thus far, we have mentioned the thought process of budhhi in the light of Purusha alone. The reality of the functioning of the subtle body in humans is more complicated.  Human actions and behavior result in a feedback to the mana by the cognitive senses.  This feedback is primarily in the form of pleasure or pain resulting from physical activity motivated by the current state of the mana.  This feedback is recorded as an experience by the ahamkara.  Experience determines inclinations.

 

11.3 Ahamkara, the Filter of Thoughts

Ahamkara uses this experience to filter and interfere with the pure thoughts of the budhhi in the light of Purusha alone. In addition, it feeds its recorded experiential data and physical instinctive demands as an input to the buddhi to shape the thoughts communicated back to ahamkara as the considered thoughts of the budhhi guided by Purusha alone. This meddling and interfering by ahamkara in the pure thought process of the budhhi in the light of Purusha determines the human condition.

            Full human development is characterized by the ahamkara being primarily excited by the thought process of the budhhi in the light of Purusha.  Ahamkara thus excited activates the mana, which, in turn, controls the senses governing human activity.  In this state, ahamkara does not ignore physical instincts but refuses to be blinded by them.  In fact, it manages instinctive matters of the physical body in such a manner as to optimize total health and happiness (mental, physical, and spiritual) in a sustainable fashion. Human beings in this state are said to exercise free will as against being driven like animals by natural physical demands and mental inclinations determined by past experience.

12. OTHER BEINGS

Like human beings, other sentient beings also have a physical body, a subtle body, and a causal body. One major difference between human and other beings is that, in other beings, the physical bodies do not provide the necessary medium to communicate the considered thoughts of the budhhi to the ahamkara (see Figure 4). Their ahamkara only receives the physical instinctive demands as input. They are filtered through the body of prior experiential data and they pass the result on to the mana for implementation. To guard against overindulgence by the physical body, the causal body directly exercises control over the instinctive demands.

            Thus, the subtle body deprives ahamkara of the considered thought process needed for free will.  The bodily activity of animals and other non-human creatures is motivated totally through involuntary automatic responses modified only by prior experience.  In the absence of free will, other beings do not share the responsibility for their actions that humans do. Their actions, being directly controlled by the causal body, are not a matter of their choice.  Thus, activities of beings other than humans are not subject to the parameters of ethical consideration.

13. THE HUMAN DILEMMA

The dilemma of following the dictates of, on the one hand, the thought process of budhhi in the light of Purusha or, on the other hand, the uncontrolled instinctive and natural demands of the physical body results in an imposition of a sense of human responsibility.  This sense of responsibility results from the free will of the ahamkara to accept one of the two available inputs or to moderate between the two.

 

13.1 Unchecked Instincts

When ahamkara allows uncontrolled instinctive demands of the physical body alone to control the mana (either by shutting out or stifling the dictates of considered thought), the individual human being is said to be totally body-centered. The source of the human's identity in that state is primarily his physical body.  The light of the Consciousness Principle is primarily ignored.  Budhhi becomes dormant as if it were nonexistent.  Since the physical body is limited, the human's vision becomes limited as well.  All actions of such a human being are like those of an animal being whose connection between the budhhi and the ahamkara is non-existent.  There is not much of a difference between such a human and an animal.  All the actions of such a human being are divisive in nature.  Such a being perceives the body as of prime importance, distinct and unconnected with any other entity in the universe.  The only relations perceived are those connected with the body.  Obsessive bodily concerns remain the only driving force.

 

13.2 Plunging into the Ocean of Consciousness

When ahamkara somehow attains a state in which the instinctive needs of the physical body are totally ignored and only the considered thought of the budhhi in the light of purusha is communicated to the mana, the human being loses individuality in the infinity of the Consciousness Principle. In that state, the identity of being becomes all purusha and its infinity, eternity, consciousness and bliss.  Since individuation is due to the influence of the physical and subtle bodies,  one’s personal existence ceases to be significant when purusha becomes the essence of one’s human identity. 

            However, because of the immediacy of the physical and subtle bodies, this state of being exists more in Samkhya theory than in reality. One can at best get momentary glimpses of such a state, but once such a state is experienced, even for a split second, it is easy for the rest of the life to be guided primarily by the infinity of purusha shining through budhhi.

            When ahamkara allows primarily the considered thought of budhhi in the light of purusha to be communicated to mana with due regard to the dictates of the instinctive needs of the physical body, the human being attains an optimal state consistent with universal consciousness without losing individuality. In this state, ahamkara manages instinctive matters of the physical body in such a manner as to optimize total health and happiness simultaneous with attaining identification with the Consciousness Principle, which is infinite, eternal, conscious and blissful.  Human actions are then guided primarily by universal rather than individual considerations.  One sees oneself more as a part of a universal whole rather than a separate, divided and unconnected individual.

14. THE MEANING OF LIFE ACCORDING TO SAMKHYA PHILOSOPHY

Samkhya thus presents two bases for human identity - ahamkara and purusha.  A human being can identify either with the infinity of purusha as a self or with the individuation and finitude of ahamkara.  In the former case, the human being is a truly free agent and, in the latter, a mere slave of his body and experiential inclinations.  Samkhya inculcates the permanent release from the evil of suffering through the former option.

            Samkhya recognizes three type of evil that lead to pain through want and suffering in human experience.  Adhyatmik pain is self-caused.  Its causes lie in one’s own physical and subtle bodies.  Adhibhautik pain is caused by beings in general, human as well as others.  Pain resulting from social and political injustice would fall under this category.  Adhidaivik pain is caused by what are commonly called acts of God.  According to Samkhya, total identification of the self with the Consciousness Principle promises a permanent prevention of all three types of suffering.  Samkhya declares that this permanent prevention of all future suffering is the supreme purpose, atyanta purushartha that gives meaning to human life.

 

14.1 The Supreme Purpose of Samkhya Philosophy: The Prevention of Future Suffering

The word atyanta means supreme, and the word purushartha is a compound word comprising of purusha, meaning man, and artha meaning ‘meaning’ or purpose.  Only the total identification of one’s individual self with the Consciousness Principle results in total and permanent cessation of pain and suffering.  The results obtained from all ordinary means of cessation of pain are uncertain and temporary.

 

14.2 The Ability to Discriminate between Prakriti and Purusha

According to Samkhya, human beings generally identify with ahamkara and other products of prakriti in general, although it is purusha that provides their life with true vitality.  This sad confusion happens because of what Samkhya calls aviveka or the lack of discrimination between the Consciousness and the Natural Principles. The role of discrimination belongs to the buddhi. Buddhi when allied with aviveka, non-discrimination lacks clear understanding.  Non-discrimination is not a nature of buddhi; it is a mental condition that changes with understanding. When viveka (discrimination) dawns, aviveka (non-discrimination) disappears just like darkness disappears in an instant as if light were lit illuminating the darkness. 

15. MEANING OF DIFFERENT IDENTITIES

In Samkhya thinking there are two mutually opposing identities. Identifying with ahamkara alone as the essence of self is an illusion and therefore false. One sees oneself as finite, limited, different and apart from other beings in the universe.  Ahamkara is a product of nature.  Although nature itself is infinite, individual products of nature are all distinct, finite and measurable.  Identified as they are with nature, one’s actions are guided primarily by the natural needs of the body and one’s own limited experience of the past in satisfying those needs.  There is a predominant feeling of the importance of one’s own immediate needs.  Other beings are seen as unconnected third parties related to one through one’s own needs alone.  Ethical behavior, if any, is guided by practical and pragmatic considerations alone.  There is no ideal to achieve.  Materialism and materialistic considerations alone prevail.  Such a viewpoint is extremely narrow since the body that is the source of all motivation is extremely limited.  Deeds are divisive due to perceived supremacy of the individual.

            Identifying with purusha as the essence of self is true. One then correctly chooses to identify one’s self with the infinity of purusha rather than with the finiteness of one’s individual body. When such an identity is experienced, one recognizes that purusha is the essence of all beings, not only of one being. Since purusha is infinite and indivisible, through purusha one feels a sense of self in every being and every thing in the universe.  Unity is then seen as underlying the infinite diversity of nature.  Living out this unity then becomes the ideal to be achieved in life.  Ethical behavior is then guided by the achievement of this ideal.

16. PREPARATION FOR VIVEKA

It is the moral responsibility of every human being to make an effort towards preparing to receive the discriminative understanding. Samkhya provides a such a strategy for human development through the concept of attributes.

            Attributes apply to the entire domain of the Natural Principle, which comprises both the objective and the subjective worlds.  In the matter of human beings, the gross physical body is subject to attributes and the subtle body comprised of mana, ahamkara, and budhhi is also subject to attributes. In the human context, we are primarily concerned with the attributes of the subtle body. Although attributes of the physical body cannot be totally ignored, those of the subtle body can usually alter those of the physical body, provided that the physical body is healthy and free from disease.  An unhealthy and diseased physical body can be a real obstacle to achieving the discriminating understanding of purusha as distinct from prakriti.  Maintaining one’s bodily health is, therefore, an important step in one’s preparation for achieving viveka.

            Since Tamas is characterized by lack of motivation and ambition, apathy, neglect and sloth and rajas by greed, worldly ambition, motivation, activity, fruit of activity, attachment and desire, and sat by cognition, knowledge and understanding, it is easy to grasp why Samkhya suggests that the strategy for human development must incorporate changing the prominent attribute from tamas to rajas, and then from rajas to sat.  It is only when a person has developed to merit the attribute of sat as one’s dominant attribute that the person can experience the goal of discriminative understanding.  One then transcends sat to connect with the infinity of the immanent purusha, and through the Immanent connect with the infinity of the Transcendent Universal Principle (see Figure 5).

 

16.1 A Practical Model

The human development model in Figure 5 is a practical model.  The circles of tamas, rajas, and sat in this figure represent the dominant attributes characterizing a person.  It may be kept in mind that all three attributes are always present and one passes regularly from one dominant attribute at one time to another at another time.  Although everyone has a dominant attribute that characterizes him or her, nature has assured itself that no person is totally trapped into it. With awareness that is the gift of purusha, one experiences the superiority of one attribute over the other in leading one to the supreme goal of life and adopts the superior one as the dominant attribute.  In this process, a person is fully capable of transforming all the way from tamas to rajas, from rajas to sat and finally transcending from sat to personal experience of contact with purusha.

 

16.2 A Social Model

Figure 6 presents a practical model suggested by Samkhya that can be used by individuals in their self- development and also by societies for the welfare of its members.  Although self-development is ultimately an individual responsibility, societies can and should assist for their benefit by modeling its religious, social, educational, economic, and political systems and institutions to facilitate the individual endeavor. After initial preparation in which society can participate, human beings are at some stage ready to take the final steps to achieve the enlightened discriminative understanding called viveka, which ultimately is only the individual’s own responsibility to achieve.

 

16.3 A Two-Fold Educational Project

The Samkhya model suggests simultaneous use of a two-fold educational effort requiring the following emphases: Acquisition of knowledge, or jnana, and Development of detachment,  or vairagya.

            The role of knowledge and understanding in developing enlightened discrimination is obvious. The role of detachment is important in giving practical shape to theoretical understanding.  Another word to describe attachment is apavarga, meaning a preferential option for transcendence in the choice of behavior with a will that is totally free of limitations, even those related with one’s own inner inclinations.  In other words, apavarga means enjoying life with a sense of complete detachment to it. The opposite of apavarga is bhoga, meaning behavior focused on enjoyment of life and the gathering of a variety of sense experiences. Bhoga involves subjecting one’s free will to one’s senses.  Samkhya considers bhoga as synonymous to bondage of human will to individual senses and vairagya or apavarga  as casting that bondage away.  Thus, development of vairagya or apavarga means development of capability to use one’s free will, free without any fetters of selfishness whatsoever, in the choice of one’s behavior.

            The Acquisition of knowledge is a two-step process.  The first step in this process is informational in nature.  It requires one to read the appropriate material and to listen to knowledgeable people. The second step is reflective. It involves developing a measure of understanding of the information acquired by reading and listening.

            Similarly, the development of detachment is also a two-step process. The first step involves the development of feeling for others.  Compassion is needed for this purpose.  The second step implies putting this feeling of compassion into practice by sharing.  One needs generosity to share. The development of compassion and generosity leads one to achieve a measure detachment from one’s own selfish concerns and preconceived ideas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

16.4 

16.4 The Necessity of Self-Discipline

Reading, listening and compassion have the potential of changing one’s dominant attribute from from tamas to rajas.  Reflection and generosity have the potential of changing one’s dominant attribute from rajas to sat.  A continuous effort of self-discipline is needed in order to maintain the attribute of sat. Only the individual can make this effort. To be compassionate and generous, one has to detach oneself from one’s own selfish concerns, ideas, likes and dislikes.  If one loses self-discipline and self-control and allows one’s own concerns to become paramount, one cannot be compassionate and generous.  And if one cannot be compassionate and generous, there is no worthwhile use of all the knowledge and understanding. In that case, one takes the downward spiral of change in one’s dominant attribute from sat through rajas to tamas. For the purpose of achieving the supreme objective of life, one may consider the attributes of sat, rajas and tamas as hierarchical with sat being the only attribute from which one can make the final leap to the goal.

            It is necessary to maintain oneself in a continuous state of sat with the exercise of self-discipline.  Only the individual can do it, and no one can do it for somebody else.  It has to be the individual’s responsibility, and the individual’s alone.  In this matter, avoidance of reckless association with those who are over-powered by passion helps and so does association with those who have attained viveka.

 

16.5 Sat is not Enough

The achievement of the attribute of sat is necessary but not enough.  This attribute by itself does not result in the attainment of viveka, the discriminative knowledge, which according to Samkhya, is the supreme goal of life.  All it does is get one the tools of knowledge, understanding and detachment that are necessary for the pursuit of the supreme goal.

The pursuit of the supreme goal culminates in nididhyasana, meditation of the highest order leading to darsana, direct perception of the true identity.  In the current context, the word darsana means seeing one’s true self eye to eye.  This perception removes any uncertainty and results in viveka.  Pursuit of this supreme goal of life provides meaning to life.

17. CONCLUSION

Human beings have two opposing and inescapable directions in life.  One, called bhoga, is related to the choice of subjecting one’s free will to one’s senses.  Bhoga orients human beings in the outer direction towards the objective world.  The second is called apavarga.  Apavarga implies transcendence over experience and physical instincts in the choice of personal behavior.  It describes a life of endeavor to divest one’s will from all limitations, even those related to one’s own inner inclinations.

            Total reliance on sensual experience has a major drawback.  It limits one’s freedom to choose between what is good in preference to what is pleasurable.  It limits one’s autonomy.  It reduces one to being a mere slave of one’s senses.  On the other hand, if experience is totally ignored, one is not able to provide for natural human needs and it becomes self-defeating.  One has to be able to transcend sensual experience in order to make autonomous and judicious decisions.  Apavarga orients human beings towards the inner direction of the subjective world.

            Non-discrimination between the real life force of purusha and products of nature like ahamkara leads one, through identification of the self with the products of nature, to the life of bhoga. Such a life is selfish, divisive, and narrow.  It is a life of infinitely diverse desire, full of unending misery and sorrow.  One can choose to permanently eliminate sorrow by achieving a direct perception of unity underlying the seeming diversity through identification of self with purusha.  To achieve this supreme goal, one has to adopt a life of apavarga.  One needs proper knowledge, understanding, and a degree of detachment from selfishness to lead a life of apavarga, which prepares one for enlightened discrimination through meditative perception of both prakriti and purusha.  This leads to a realization that one is not a product of prakriti alone, but that the real life force is purusha.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

With this realization, one sees unity underlying all diversity.  One’s behavior is then guided by the underlying oneness of all.  Narrow selfish concerns, perception of limitations, individuation and finitude that are the hallmarks of identification with prakriti alone, totally disappear.

            Samkhya claims that only the achievement of this supreme goal is the final release of one’s will from all limitations that cause misery.  It is only with will that is totally free that one can avoid that which should be avoided and accept that which should be accepted.

            A direction of further research into the Ultimate Reality and Meaning of Samkhya would lead to  Samkhya’s practical twin, the Yoga philosophy of Patanjali (Taimni, 1961). This would provide details of the effort one can make in this magnificent life project and how to achieve what both claim to be the supreme goal of life.

18. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to express his thanks and gratitude to Brahmrishi Vishvatma Bawra and Didi Chaitanya Jyoti for continued spiritual teaching and guidance through the years.  In addition, the author expresses a deep sense of admiration and gratitude for the innumerable number of men and women through centuries who considered Samkhya as valuable heritage of humanity worthy of being passed down by memory from one generation to the next.

REFERENCES

Basham, A.L. 1989. The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism, Boston: Beacon Press.

Hiriyanna, M. 1993. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. First Indian Edition. New Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

Radhakrishnan, S. 1977. Indian Philosophy, Volume 2. Tenth Impression. London: George Allen & Unwin.

Ranganathananda, Swami. 1980. The Message of the Upanishads. Bombay, India: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan.

Shrimad Bhagvadgita. Gorakhpur, India: Gita Press.

Sinha, Nandalala. 1979. The Samkhya Philosophy. Includes the originals of Samkhya Pravachan Sutram and Tattva Samasa both attributed to sage Kapila in addition to Samkhya Karika of Isvarakrisna along with some authoritative commentaries in English. New Delhi, India: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.

Taimni, I. K. 1961. The Science of Yoga. A commentary on The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Wheaton, IL: The Theosophical Publishing House.