This article was first published in the Journal of Ultimate Reality and Meaning, Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2004.

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Yoga: Attainment of Ultimate Reality and Meaning

1. Introduction

 

Popularly, the term yoga evokes images of bodily postures in physical exercise.  Contrary to this notion, yoga is a serious system of contemplation with an integrated approach towards objective and transcendental knowledge.  Yoga is a Sanskrit word, which is derived from the root yuj, meaning ‘to join’ (Taimni 1961, p.7).  Its purpose is first to unite the contemplator with the objective reality of the object of contemplation and then to enable unity with the realm transcending objectivity. 

Yogic process begins with consciously stilling the mind to free it of its usual disturbances and fleetingness in order to develop an incisive focus of intellect to enable uninterrupted contemplation of one object.  Eventually, even this one object fades and disappears from consciousness, which is left completely free of ordinary activity. The contemplator must want passionately to know the object of contemplation, or the effort needed for the contemplative union will not be possible. Any object of contemplation can enable the transcendence of objectivity, if the contemplative effort is uninterrupted.

The totality of the universe is the most intriguing object, the contemplation of which unites the contemplator with the ultimate reality of the universe.  In this sense yoga is a discipline of union with the absolute.  The essence of self of an individual is an equally intriguing object of contemplation and it unites the contemplator with the reality of the self.  In this sense yoga is a discipline of union with the self.  Since an individual is a part of the universe, yoga is a discipline of union of the self with the universe through the absolute.  In practical terms, the attainment of this union of the self with the universe is the supreme goal of yoga - the highest achievement possible for a contemplator.  This achievement is said to transform the mind permanently from ordinary finitude and limitations to extraordinary potential and boundless love.

The secret lies in the process of cognition. The sublimation of this process through mental and physical discipline to sustain undisturbed incisive focus on one object leads to a succession of stages that can roughly be described as follows:

1. A state of unawareness of everything except the object and the mind itself results in subjective knowledge of the object;

2. The awareness of mind recedes from consciousness in which the object exists alone in a state resulting in objective knowledge stripped of all subjectivity;

3. Even the object recedes resulting in a transcendental state of intuition and revelation.

Since yoga is considered to be the practical side of a theoretical system enunciated by Samkhya (Talwar 2001), its prior knowledge may help in developing an understanding of the yogic thought, which seems to prescribes a discipline implementing the Samkhya model of human development.  Yogic thought, being vedic in origin, existed much before the time of sage Patanjali, who lived sometime between the second century B.C. and the fifth century A.D. (Hiriyanna 1993, p. 270), and who is considered to have systematized it in the form of sutras (aphorisms).  Although the general purpose of yoga is to unite the contemplator with the object of contemplation, the scope of this article encompasses those sutras of Patanjali, which in the opinion of the author explicitly focus on it as a general science of discovery of reality, both immediate and ultimate.

2. Basic Yogic Concepts

 

2.1 Chitta – The Internal Organ

 

The subtle body of Samkhya activated by purusha (consciousness principle) in yogic terms is known as chitta or the internal organ (Talwar 2001).  In this article, the word mind is sometimes used synonymously.  Chitta ‘may be considered as a universal medium through which consciousness functions on all planes of the manifested universe’ (Taimni 1961, p.7).

Chitta may also be visualized to comprise a nucleus consisting of the activator purusha enclosed by layers of the subtle products of evolution of prakriti (natural principle).  The innermost layer of such a model is buddhi (thinking principle), followed by ahamkara (apparent self or personality), and finally by mana (controller of senses and connection with sense objects) (Talwar 2001).  Viewed from the outside, this model presents chitta as comprised of the products of evolution of prakriti, while its real essence lies in purusha, its activator.

There are two associated principles in chitta – prakriti characterized by change, materiality and predictability through laws of natural sciences; and  purusha characterized by constancy, consciousness, free will, and life.  Manifestation of consciousness through the material principles of chitta wholly depends upon the state of the associated material principle.

2.2 Transformations of Chitta

 

Ordinarily, thought is the mode of existence of chitta.  The object of this section is to examine the changes that may take place in its material principle as it transforms under various forces that act on it.

2.2.1 Modal Transformations

 

Perhaps the best way to describe this kind of transformation is through the use of an analogy with a radio tuner.  The process of tuning involves causing the tuner material to oscillate in harmony with the broadcast of the station being tuned.  This tuning process involves a modal transformation of the tuning material.

The material principle of chitta undergoes a similar process when it is tuning in to a particular thought wave.  The thought wave may be associated with one of the previous impressions, a sensual contact with an object resulting in a new experience, or a natural instinct of the body.  The change that the material principle of chitta undergoes while connecting with a thought is called its modal transformation.  Sensual contact with an object is said to color the material principle of the chitta, which may also be thought of as its modal transformation.  Connecting with another thought or object is yet another modal transformation.  The life span of a particular mode is [lasts] only until it is replaced by another mode. 

Flippant as chitta ordinarily is, it always seems to undergo one modal transformation after another and exists in states that are being modified continuously.  Modes or modifications seem to be the natural way of existence of chitta.  Modes or modifications of the mind are called chitta-vrittis - vrittis of chitta.  The word vritti is derived from the root vrit meaning ‘to exist’.  Thus, chitta-vrittis are ways of existence of chitta. 

Patanjali uses two types of classifications for chitta-vrittis, one according to the nature of sensations produced and the other according to the nature of the thought produced in our minds (Taimni 1961, p.12).  According to the former classification, chitta-vrittis are of two types – painful and not painful.  According to the latter classification, there are five types of chitta-vrittis:

2.2.1.1 Pramanda – Right Knowledge

 

Pramanda is that type of content of mind, which is based on the reality of the underlying facts.  In this mode of chitta, there is a complete correspondence between an object and its mental image.

2.2.1.2 Viparya – Contrary Knowledge

 

Viparya is that type of content of mind, which is contrary to any reality of underlying facts.  In this mode, there is contrary correspondence between an object and its understanding.

2.2.1.3 Vikalpa – Imagination

 

Imagination is a word image only without any underlying object.  Objectivity is of no consequence when mind is involved in fanciful imaginations.

2.2.1.4 Nidra – Sleep

 

In this mode, the mind is functioning but is idle and without content.  This mode is associated with lack of consciousness of the mental content.

2.2.1.5 Smriti – Memory

 

Memory consists of the impressions left in the mind by previously experienced objects.

 

2.2.2 State Transitions

 

State transitions of physical objects occur rather quickly in the presence of conditions conducive to the transition.  For example, when water is heated to its boiling temperature, it begins to boil and further heat produces steam.  Steam condenses into water when it cools.  The new state persists as long as conditions persist to maintain it.  Similarly, material principles of mind undergo temporary state transitions under the influence of environmental changes.  An example of such a change is found in the influence of company on an individual’s mind. 

2.2.3 Mutations

 

Certain conditions can cause transmutations of the material principles of the mind.  These transformations are not temporary but of a lasting duration. 

An object of a certain class in nature has potentialities of mutating into an object of various other classes.  Actualization of a potential metamorphosis requires a particular set of conditions to be met. This law of natural evolution applies to the material principles of chitta as well. It must be understood that the fulfillment of the natural conditions required for a certain transmutation is not the material cause of the change, but only the incidental cause.  The material cause is in the form of the potentiality inherent in the object. Characteristics resulting from metamorphic transmutations of the material principles of chitta are called siddhis, the attainments.  According to Patanjali, siddhis result from transmutations due to five incidental causes:

2.2.3.1 Birth

 

A fundamental change occurs at birth, which results in the current content of memory being converted from a conscious to an unconscious state.  Yoga terms these latent memory contents as samskaras.  Ordinarily, we call them natural instincts. 

2.2.3.2 Drugs

 

It is well known that certain drugs and chemicals can react with the material principles of chitta to alter their states on a temporary or permanent basis.

2.2.3.3 Mantras

 

Yoga theory postulates that suitable repetition of certain mantras can transform human minds enabling capabilities that can be classified as siddhis.

2.2.3.4 Austerities

 

Self imposed austerities including fasting when practiced for a long time in a disciplined manner can cause unexplainable mental capabilities.  Near death experiences, traumatic experiences like severe accidents and illnesses are known to leave people in altered states of mind.

2.2.3.5 Samadhi

 

This is the most recommended method for use by those individuals who are interested in transforming their states of mind with a view to self-development. This method is completely under the control of an individual’s personal will.  The literal meaning of the word samadhi is balanced intellect.  The term refers to a certain internal and external balance one achieves as a result of the application of willful and undisturbed contemplative effort.  It must be emphasized that one maintains the stage of samadhi for a definite time period only.  Since samadhi is an important yogic attainment, it will be treated extensively later in the article.

2.2.4 Characteristics of Mutant Minds

 

Transmutations resulting from the four aforementioned causes have one characteristic in common: asmita.  Asmita is the principle of finitude and individuality, which ordinarily lies at the very core of our being and makes us behave in ways centered on our limited existence. Only those transmutations that result from samadhi lack the centrality of finitude and individuality. 

Ordinary minds are rooted in asmita and their actions leave their effects on the mind in the form of unconscious tendencies or inclinations called samskaras, which lead to subtle desires called vasanas.  In the case of those minds that are not rooted in asmita but in the infinity and unity of ultimate reality, actions do not leave their effects.  Such are the minds of yogis.

In all, actions are of four kinds: black, white, mixed black and white, and neither black nor white.  Of these, only the last relates to minds devoid of asmita.  Actions of those rooted in asmita are black, white or mixed black and white.  Black deeds are evil deeds that are intended to hurt others and white deeds are good and virtuous deeds that are intended to help others.  Actions for self-development are also white.  Mixed deeds are those that are neither wholly black nor wholly white.  These are acts of ordinary men that help some and hurt others.  All of these three types of actions are within the scope of the law of karma : cause and effect.

Actions of those who have achieved the supreme goal of yoga are rooted in the infinity of ultimate reality and transcend classification as good, bad or mixed.  Such actions can only be classified as neither black nor white.  These actions are outside the scope of the law of karma. 

2.2.5 Law of Karma – Cause and Effect

 

The law of karma applies to those actions that are rooted in asmita.  The law of karma is the natural law of cause and effect, which applies to everything in the domain of nature.  In the case of actions, their effect is the memory of the consequent sensation of pleasure or pain.  If the sensation is pleasure, the memory is good; otherwise, bad.  Respective memory leaves a tendency called samskara on the mind to repeat or avoid the action.  Samskaras lead to subtle desires called vasanas, which turn into active desires when time and circumstance permit.

One’s inbuilt tendencies or samskaras are one’s potential energy.  Out of the collection of one’s tendencies, one manifests those tendencies for which the conditions are right.  The others lie dormant until an opportunity presents itself.

Samskaras do not respect any limitations of time or space, or recognize any specific mutation of the mind. As long as asmita is present at the root of the mind, samskaras are present.  In other words, they are ever present with one whether one lives or dies and are reborn as long as one’s mind is rooted in asmita.  Samskaras are of the same nature as memory.  They may dim with time, but they are never lost as long as they are fed with asmita.

The collection of samskaras start from the beginning of time since the will to live and live well is eternal.  It begins when we begin, at the beginning of time, and life continues in one form or the other until the end of time.   It keeps us acting for self-protection, our good and our well being, and for accumulating samskaras.  This process can go on forever until we want to break it by willfully detaching ourselves from the principle of finitude and individuality called asmita.

2.3 Human Condition

 

2.3.1 Root Causes

 

Chitta being the essence of an individual, its condition determines the human condition.  Klesas  are determinants of the human condition, and they are five in number:

2.3.1.1 Avidya – Lack of Understanding of Reality

 

Avidya is the lack of awareness that the entire universe is a mere manifestation of one ultimate reality.  It is the underlying cause of the other four klesas, which may lie in latent and dormant, weak and attenuated, scattered and alternating, or fully operative states from time to time.  In the dormant state, a klesa may be present in its potential waiting to actualize.  In the attenuated state, its strength is under control.  In the alternative state, it comes and goes and in the fully operative state, its presence is all too apparent.  The states of klesas depend upon the prevailing conditions and opportunities from time to time.

Avidya is defined as the misappropriation of the nature of purusha to that of prakriti.  Purusha is eternal, unchangeable, and enabling consciousness.  On the other hand, prakriti is non-eternal, changeable, and lacking consciousness although it acts as a tool of consciousness.  Avidya is the attribution of nature of purusha to prakriti.  Avidya occurs naturally.  It is not a deliberate human creation.

2.3.1.2 Asmita – The I-sense

 

Literally asmita is a noun from the root asmi , meaning ‘I am’.  Asmita, then, means the feeling of I-am-ness, the principle of individuality that enables us to identify ourselves as apart from others.  Identification with nature causes asmita.

 Asmita results from avidya. The reason for the feeling of asmita is the close working relationship of purusha and the material principles of chitta - buddhi, ahamkara, and mana; which we regard as the essence of our being instead of purusha.  We all know that electrical energy powers machines used as tools to make parts, yet it is easy to think that machines make parts. 

Asmita could be understood as assertion by buddhi and its adjuncts or by physical body made up of five gross elements as the essence of being, whereas there is no existence without purusha.  The assertion of buddhi as the essence of being is asmita at the subtlest level and the assertion of physical body as the essence of being is asmita at the gross level.

2.3.1.3 Raga – Attachment

 

Raga, or attachment is the result of the feeling of pleasure.  It is the attraction towards an object that pleases one, or has pleased one previously.  It is a result of asmita as a consequence of misplaced emphasis on objects of prakriti as the essence of our being.  A simple feeling of pleasure in an object leads to a keen delight in thinking about it, desire and pride of possession, covetousness, greed, gluttony, and lust.

2.3.1.4 Dvesa – Aversion

 

Natural feeling of aversion, resentment, loathing and revulsion towards an unpleasant object which one imagines to be upsetting, or which has upset one previously is called dvesa, or aversion.  Being the opposite of attachment, it, too, is a result of asmita. 

2.3.1.5 Abhinivesa – Fear of Death

 

Fear of death resulting from strong desire to live is abhivinesa.  This feeling is automatic and universal.  Since it is the immediate result of attachment to life, the greater the play of attractions and aversions in life, the greater would be intensity of fear of losing life.  Old age undermines the play of attractions and revulsions with consequent loss of will to live.

Fear of death and strong desire for life both interfere with living and make one die manytimes in one lifetime.

2.3.2 Universality of Klesas

 

Klesas are the determinants of human condition, but they are not limited to humans alone.  All beings are born with them.  In fact, they are the root cause of all activity in nature.  The survival instinct being universal, abhinivesa or fear of death is universal.  Raga, attachment to things or conditions that are agreeable, and dvesa, aversion from those that are disagreeable are also universal.  The other two klesas, namely asmita and avidya are subtle causes of the former three manifestations. 

2.3.3 Reservoir of Impressions

 

 Klesas are the cause of the reservoir of karma, the impressions left by human activity.  Klesas underlie all our thoughts and desires that motivate us to act in accordance with our prior samskaras or conditioning and determine our future conditioning.  Samskaras are compared with the fruit of the tree with klesas as the root.  As long as klesas are present, its fruit, the samskaras or impressions left by the experience of actions are also present.  The experiences of current incarnation are like the fruit of seeds sown earlier.  They are joyous or sorrowful depending upon the underlying prior actions.

2.3.4 Happiness

 

Our actions are like assets and liabilities. Those that are assets are good and virtuous in nature and result in happiness and joy.  Those that are liabilities are bad and evil in nature and produce unhappiness and sorrow.  Why not, then, continue to perform virtuous deeds and consequently live happily ever after?  Yoga says that this is not possible for various reasons. 

The ideal of everlasting happiness is not achievable.  Change is a matter of rule in this world of prakriti, and every change has some effects.  Coping with the incessant onslaught of change is difficult.  Being unpredictable, change is accompanied with anxiety, tension and suffering.  We get baffled and confused, and lose our sense of good and bad.  Change brings in its wake adversity, poverty, divorce, old age, disease, and death and it is impossible to keep your sense of values under i